Prenatal |
- Eye begins to form at 3 weeks after gestation.
- Visual cortex forms between 25 and 32 weeks' gestational age (GA).
- Pupils react to light at 30 weeks' GA.
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All organs and body systems are growing in utero. |
At Birth |
- Anterior structures of the eye are more developed than posterior structures; optic nerve is almost full size.
- Visual field is limited.
- Infant displays the following behaviors:
- Focuses at 2.5 feet
- Prefers low lighting; is sensitive to bright light
- Fixates on single visual or auditory stimulus by turning head laterally
- Fixates on and follows a moving stimulus
- Prefers human face over other visual stimuli
- Has basic perception of space
- May demonstrate convergence (eyes move inward as object approaches)
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At birth, infants are somewhat passive creatures who attempt to regulate their responses to the multitude of stimuli they are exposed to after birth. They are born with some reflexes and develop more. Motor reflexes are their first experiences with movement. The weeks that follow are characterized by increased control over these reflexes as the infant learns to interact with people and the environment; the reflexes eventually become voluntary movements under the infant's control. |
First month |
- Visual acuity ranges from 20/100 to 20/800 (6/30 to 6/242).
- Color discrimination is weak but emerging.
- Infant displays the following behaviors:
- Sometimes moves eyes in parallel direction simultaneously, sometimes not
- Demonstrates cross-modal ability (matches visual shape to shape held in hand)
- Is interested in pattern details in clothing, environment
- Attends to outside edges of a pattern or stimulus
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Second month |
- Visual cortex begins to mature.
- Eyes converge as object approaches.
- Infant displays the following behaviors:
- Recognizes familiar faces by discriminating hairline (outer edge of face)
- Fixates steadily; focuses best at 8–12 inches
- Begins to demonstrate smooth pursuit (following moving objects)
- Accommodates objects at different distances
- Begins to perceive the whole of a partially hidden object
- Discriminates photographs of different faces
- Perceives objects as three-dimensional
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Third month |
- Visual acuity approaches 20/200 (6/60) or better.
- Accommodation improves.
- Infant displays the following behaviors:
- Uses primarily central vision
- Discriminates color differences
- Follows moving object horizontally, past midline
- Follows moving object vertically
- Shifts fixation from one object to another
- Makes eye contact with adults
- Recognizes faces without relying on hairline contours
- Watches actions of others
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Infants during this stage repeat movements with their body and develop habits (primary circular reactions), such as thumb sucking and grasping and mouthing objects. Objects in near space become interesting. |
Fourth month |
- Infant displays the following behaviors:
- Discriminates color as well as adults do
- Fixates and follows moving objects consistently (visual pursuit)
- Begins reaching to visual stimulus
- Uses both eyes for visual tasks
- Perceives internal elements of a pattern, in addition to external elements
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By 9 months |
- Visual acuity ranges from 20/20 to 20/150 (6/6 to 6/45).
- Eyes work together consistently (binocularity).
- Eye-hand coordination improves; child uses vision to mediate reach and grasp.
- Child displays the following behaviors:
- Uses horizontal visual field of 180 degrees
- Accommodates easily
- Follows dropped object visually
- Locates an object and moves toward it
- Demonstrates keen interest in the environment and the objects and people in it
- Recognizes objects and people at greater distances
- Looks at hands
- Recognizes self in mirror
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This stage is characterized again by repetition, but the difference is that the repetition now involves external people and objects. This happens as increased visual behavior now permits a wider visual space for the infant to explore. Some typical behaviors are as follows:
- Approaches objects and people with two hands, then one hand
- Enjoys new positions and new visual perspectives
- Gradually changes from using a palmar grasp to using one involving fingers and thumb
- Holds bottle independently
- Begins to hold and mouth biscuit or cookie
- Crosses midline with hands to reach for objects
- Sits independently; moves from sitting to prone position; pulls to stand
- Crawls, then creeps
- Imitates sounds and facial expressions
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By 12 months |
- Visual acuity ranges from 20/20 to 20/60 (6/6 to 6/18).
- Child displays the following behaviors:
- Follows object moving circularly
- Uses vision to monitor motor activities
- Begins imitating body movements of others
- Discriminates inside of containers
- Discriminates same and different based on visual characteristics
- Begins to separate object from background
- Begins to scribble with crayons
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Coordination of secondary circular reactions is the phase when the child begins to make sense of the environment and realizes that he or she has a role in it. Piaget has called this the first true sign of intelligence, as it is the period when object permanence and means-end behavior develops. Expanding visual experiences help the child learn that he or she can make things happen. Actions become not only voluntary but intentional. The child remembers previous activities and is able to combine them in new ways. Some typical behaviors are the following:
- Demonstrates object permanence and means-end behaviors
- Develops pincer grasp
- Eats finger foods independently
- Probes, points, and pokes with index finger
- Cruises around furniture
- Stands independently
- Uses one or two words, plus mama and dada; is able to use gestures, sounds, and facial expressions to convey feelings
- Repeats activities over and over again (to figure out how things work)
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By 18 months |
- Child displays the following behaviors:
- Follows objects with eyes alone
- Recognizes people at a distance
- Interested in books, pictures, two-dimensional representations of objects
- Stacks objects vertically
- Imitates a vertical crayon stroke
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This phase is characterized by the discovery of new means to accomplish goals. Motor activities are observed and imitated. The child also imitates words and communicates with gestures, with his or her vocabulary increasing daily. Some typical behaviors are as follows:
- Walks independently
- Uses utensils to eat
- Stacks objects
- Shows interest in books
- Begins to scribble
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By 2 years |
- Optic nerve is completely myelinated.
- Child displays the following behaviors:
- Stacks objects horizontally
- Points to different body parts on doll or other toy
- Identifies pictures of familiar objects
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This stage is characterized by mental representation and full object permanence. Instead of being controlled by bodily needs, the child begins to think more about what is happening and is able to recognize pictures as representations of the real object. Some typical behaviors are as follows:
- Runs, climbs, and jumps
- Rotates wrist to unscrew lids and turn doorknobs
- Drinks from cup independently
- Plays with objects and toys
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By 3 years |
- Child displays the following behaviors:
- Demonstrates visual memory
- Completes form boards, simple puzzles, peg-board designs
- Identifies outline drawings of familiar objects
- Identifies objects partially hidden in pictures
- Copies a circle
- Identifies (names) two colors
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The preoperational stage is characterized by symbolization (symbols, words, or pictures to represent something not in physical contact with the child), single-mindedness (able to focus on only one factor or concept at a time), intuitive beliefs, and egocentrism (seeing things from only his or her point of view). Visual behavior is closely associated with cognitive development, as the child learns increasingly complex skills with these new thinking tools. Some other typical behaviors are:
- Walks up steps, alternating feet
- Chops with scissors
- Demonstrates imagination in play
- Demonstrates object constancy
- Demonstrates vocabulary between 200 and 250 words and uses 3–4 word sentences
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By 4 years |
- Child displays the following behaviors:
- Maintains eye contact at 10–16-foot (3–5 meter) distances
- Identifies red, green, blue, and yellow
- Differentiates facial expressions and body language that reflect various moods
- Plays with toys without looking at hands
- Connects dots to form a line or simple shape
- Traces simple shapes and objects
- Groups items by physical attributes
- Sequences pictures to tell a story
- Draws a person
- Imitates a cross
- Identifies longer of two lines
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By 5 years |
- Child displays the following behaviors:
- Describes details in pictures and drawings
- Builds a bridge with blocks
- Matches by size and shape
- Cuts between lines with scissors
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